endobj Passive leisure activities become alternative leisure Because other imputed stratified estimates (see tables S4S5 in the online appendix) deliver similar or more conservative estimates compared to those using listwise deletion, it is possible that our main race-stratified results are downwardly biased due to nonresponse. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2018; 18: 380-386. While we aggregated many individual activities into cohesive categories in the earlier stages of our analyses, we ultimately include only those that exhibit a robust first-stage association with our weather measures in the full specifications. Prakash, Ruchika Shaurya, Michelle W. Voss, Kirk I. Erickson, and Arthur F. Kramer. 8 0 obj These effects are meaningfully large in a real-world sense, ranging from a rise or fall of a fifth to more than half a standard deviation in math scores per additional daily hour spent on the specific activity. endstream endobj Strategies that decrease sedentary time and promote physical activity in its place may have a particularly robust impact on confronting these pernicious inequalities of achievement. McKnight, P. E., K. M. McKnight, S. Sidani, and A. J. Figueredo. Still, even if we assume that time-varying unobservables were not biasing results, the potential for reverse causation could complicate our interpretation of them. These data are not available from the authors. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. To better address issues of endogeneity, we use a combined fixed-effects instrumental variable (FE-IV) approach, where we exploit the variation in weather to estimate the effect of time use on cognition across waves. Thomas Laidley, Dalton Conley, The Effects of Active and Passive Leisure on Cognition in Children: Evidence from Exogenous Variation in Weather, Social Forces, Volume 97, Issue 1, September 2018, Pages 129156, https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soy020. Among the stratified results, the clearest differences are among the college- and non-college-educated caregiver subsamples (table 2). We follow the best practices suggested by Graham, Olchowski, and Gilreath (2007) and conservatively use 150 imputations. Methods: 2015;19(11):1031-41. doi: 10.1080/13607863.2014.996734. Significant baseline differences among high- and low-SES toddlers have been found as early as 18 months (Fernald, Marchman, and Wiesleder 2013), and indeed may be large enough in magnitude to largely account for the lag in US educational assessment compared to similar industrialized countries (Merry 2013). Scientists from the Southeast Fisheries Science Center have deployed passive acoustic recorders to monitor endangered North Atlantic right whales in the Southeast for the 2023 calving season. Clifford, Angela, Linda Lang, Ruoling Chen, Kaarin J. Anstey, and Anthony Seaton. There are also other more clinically significant sun-related factors that work in the opposite direction, and would bias our estimates downward. Erickson, Kirk I., Charles H. Hillman, and Arthur F. Kramer. Noelke, Clemens, Mark McGovern, Daniel J. Corsi, Marcia P. Jiminez, Ari Stern, Ian Sue Wing, and Lisa Berkman. /Filter /DCTDecode Though we match sunlight data to the single time diary day, we recognize that these discrete daily averages will usually reflect the time of year they take place in. Behav Sci (Basel). official website and that any information you provide is encrypted endstream In our data, black-white and caregiver college/no college math score gaps are about four-fifths and two-thirds of a standard deviation, respectively, which is broadly consistent with recent estimates of school readiness differences by race and income among similarly aged cohorts (Reardon and Portilla 2015). 2015). Another consideration is the effect sizes of behavior on assessment we find among African Americans compared to whites, which could reflect differential vitamin D absorption because of the protective effects of melanin (Matsuoka et al. Data missingness is not a trivial concern using PSID-CDS data; in the inaugural 1997 wave, about 20 percent of families otherwise eligible and contributing to the study did not complete time diaries. These observations are nevertheless preliminary and provisional, as researchers have tended to focus on the effects of physical behavior on cognition later in the life course (i.e., older adults) rather than in childhood (Prakash et al. Falbe, Jennifer, Bernard Rosner, Walter C. Willett, Kendrin R. Sonneville, Frank B. Hu, and Alison E. Field. A major strength of the CDS is the detailed measurement of daily behavior offered by the time diary module. We also include a five-year rolling average of real family income preceding the measurement year, and the poverty rate of the home census tract as a proxy for neighborhood conditions. F ) sx3s\y; Woodcock, Richard W., and Mary B. Johnson. On the other hand, gaps in screen time largely persisted or grew. While institutional and geographic factors are doubtlessly crucial to the formation of intellectual capital, these findings suggest that variations in home activity (i.e., outside formal school or childcare settings) may have cumulative effects on development that rival or even exceed those of school or neighborhood quality (Potter and Roksa 2013). Epub 2015 Jan 13. 2005). For instance, there could in theory be some character trait that prompts a simultaneous migration to the Sunbelt and an outsized growth in cognition, which would bias our estimates upward. While it is only in its earliest stages, the new PSID CDS will be a powerful tool in the future for researchers who seek to understand how behavior affects assessment and achievement. endobj As the catchment and reservoir are the first and foremost barriers to protect drinking water quality, these ecological impacts may have a considerable influence on water quality. For instance, physical trampling will damage vegetation and increase compaction of soils. Specifications that were not bounded by lag time restrictions produced substantively similar results, but with smaller coefficients and greater precision, consistent with the growth in sample size and reduced signal after including cases where testing substantially lags or precedes treatment. Association between Depression Severity and Physical Function among Chinese Nursing Home Residents: The Mediating Role of Different Types of Leisure Activities. We restricted the 2014 CDS descriptive estimates to children above 10 so they are comparable in age to the 2007 wave (when the youngest children in our sample were about 10 years old). Prior work on leisure time expenditure expectedly illustrates a positive association between sunlight and physical and outdoor activity, with the opposite for sedentary behavior and screen time (Lee, Gino, and Staats 2014; Zivin and Neidell 2014). WebAim: Many older adults face limitations to participating in active leisure activities as a result of their physical constraints from aging. Walking is one of the most common recreational activities on land; accordingly, this activity and the effects of trampling are well studied. << In the only large-scale study that directly examines the effect of weather on cognition that we are aware of, Kent et al. Thus for certain subpopulations, narrowing time use differences among children may aid in helping shrink gaps in assessment and academic achievement more generally. Recent work finds that rainfall seems to depress subjective life satisfaction in cross-sectional but not longitudinal models, with effect sizes in the former that are trivial compared to other determinants of mood like economic status (Barrington-Leigh and Behzadnejad 2017). Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! The Life Satisfaction Index - Z and the Meaningful Activity Participation Assessment were analyzed to examine older adults' life satisfaction and frequency of active or passive activities. Finally, we control for educational time, consisting of the total time in school and doing homework summed together. >> For some intolerable deviance is visible and may not even be intolerable in some parts of the community (e.g., sectarian violence, ! In our FE-IV models, each additional daily hour of physical and outdoor activity produced a nearly seven-point gain in math scores, or about 40 percent of a standard deviation (pooled SD = 17.07). A full table of our time use variables and their stratified descriptive statistics across the three waves is located in the online appendix (appendix table S1). This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (, Racialization and Reproduction: Asian Immigrants and Californias Twentieth-Century Eugenic Sterilization Program, Review of Prisons and Health in the Age of Mass Incarceration, Review of: Making Gender Salient: From Gender Quota Laws to Policy, Review of Why Baby Boomers Turned from Religion: Shaping Belief and Belonging, 19452021, Review of Liberty Road: Black Middle-Class Suburbs and the Battle Between Civil Rights and Neoliberalism, Childhood Inequality, Time Use, and Cognitive Growth, Cognition: Practical Significance and Empirical Measurement, Supplementary material is available at Social Forces online, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/, Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic, Copyright 2023 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill. We find that weighting our data do not affect our estimates. Disclaimer. 2015). k#/m,]K9>Bk#.ku}uVj6^C |5>_:+5q/` Kq! p>KGFk}g $o^:G\f^;.^' {N?Fu6e:}o^:G\f^;.^' {N?]tr"{/+RI%Ve?/^u5`!,Ve?/^u5`!,Ve?/^u5`!,^W? We actually see a small reduction in total screen time, most likely because we code these behaviors as primary rather than secondary activities. Time use patterns among children have long been a popular empirical concern in light of their intuitively influential contributions to developmental trajectory. Chay, Kenneth Y., Jonathan Guryan, and Bhashkar Mazumder. Regular physical activity exerts beneficial effects on onset and progression of a number chronic diseases, well-being, and has positive effect to communities and societies. Recent reviews have argued that the consumption of folate in particular and other essential B vitamins in general are important to cognitive performance and brain health at every stage of the life cycle, in addition to during pregnancy (McGarel et al. active leisure activities; life satisfaction; older adults; passive leisure activities. Conclusions: This raises the possibility of a selection bias mechanism whereby higher-ability children spend more time sedentary or consuming media. A sedentary or inactive lifestyle. Zimmerman, Frederick J., and Dimitri A. Christakis. BMC Public Health. These experimental results illustrate that the benefits of exercise may partly reflect a direct dose-response relationship that can manifest in the short or medium term, rather than simply reflecting long-term differences in well-being. 13 0 obj Results: The results showed that participation in passive leisure activities, such reading, talking on the telephone and watching TV/listening to the radio, is more frequent among older adults (P = 0.000). Some of the data used in this analysis are derived from Restricted Data Files of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, obtained under special contractual arrangements designed to protect the anonymity of the respondents. National Library of Medicine For instance, we may find that children who have their time use and cognitive performance measured in December in the first wave and June in the second exhibit an increase in active behavior and a co-occurring growth in cognitive performance. Outdoor recreation in protected areas negatively impacts wildlife These activities were then coded by PSID researchers, and in their raw form may be aggregated to obtain a detailed snapshot of how and where children spent their time. Supplementary material is available at Social Forces online. Madestam, Andreas, Daniel Shoag, Stan Veuger, and David Yanagizawa-Drott. Liddle, 1975, Cole and Bayfield, 1993 laid the foundations for this research field We conclude by descriptively examining time use among a comparably aged subset of the new CDS cohort in 2014 to adolescents in our main data, offering suggestive evidence of recent trend lines in behavior among US children, and providing relevant contemporary context for our findings. For instance, we do not capture the qualitative details of what kinds of physical, sedentary, and so on, behavior children are engaging in. There is also the related question of what cognition as it is customarily rendered in the social sciences signifies. Note: Cluster-robust standard errors are in parentheses. 2016). WebOther studies have also indicated that participating in moderate-in-tensity leisure activities (e.g., walking) can effectively reduce psychological anxiety and improve mood (Fox, 1999; Roe & Aspinall, 2011; Scully, Kremer, Meade, Graham, & Dudgeon, 1998). Not exercising. In terms of the trends in behavioral and assessment gaps among adolescents from 2007 to 2014, some results are modestly encouraging (see online appendix table S1). The mere presence of people in forests can disturb wildlife, which may perceive humans as potential predators. Leisure and religious activity participation and mental health: gender analysis of older adults in Nepal. FOIA However, some drawbacks can include social isolation and self-deception as a result of errors made. /Filter /FlateDecode 2022 Jun 15;10(1):151. doi: 10.1186/s40359-022-00861-1. Aim: Persons interested in obtaining PSID Restricted Data Files should contact PSIDHelp@isr.umich.edu. Systematic reviews generally find substantial positive associations between physical activity and cognitive well-being across the life course, but particularly among children and seniors (Esteban-Cornejo et al. 7 0 obj /Name /im2 /Height 42 We He is also interested in mapping the genetic architecture of phenotypic plasticity, and characterizing social and genetic sorting as distinct processes. Eyles, D. W., F. Feron, X. Cui, J. P. Kesby, L. H. Harms, P. Ko, J. J. McGrath, and T. H. J. Burne. In 1997, the CDS component collected additional data on children (newborns to 12-year-olds) and their parents or guardians. 9 0 obj We find evidence that physical and outdoor activity positively influence math performance, while sedentary behavior and screen time exhibit the opposite effect. H+T5237U0 B]cC=S## %*g* e (2005) found that time outdoors moderates the relationship between weather and affective and cognitive outcomes, which suggests that behavior (i.e., going outside, rather than general abstract satisfaction with positive weather conditions) is the linchpin in the causal process. Other researchers have similarly argued for the primacy of noncognitive skills in fostering long-run outcomes in educational attainment (Heckman and Kautz 2013). This leaves open the possibility that a different estimation strategy may uncover significant relationships between time use and cognition among the children of college-educated parents that we do not observe here. We found no noticeable difference in results by excising homework time and confining the measure to the length of the school day alone. 1369 We use this proxy for weather to instrument for the variation in physical, outdoor, sedentary, and screen-time behaviors based on CDS time diaries. The negative effect of sedentary behavior is less substantial, but still accounts for a reduction of about a fifth of a standard deviation with each additional hour. Khn, Simone, Tobias Gleich, Robert C. Lorenz, U. Lindenberger, and Jurgen Gallinat. There are three possible sources of variation in sunlight from wave to wave in our data: 1) the effect of children moving to a qualitatively different climate across waves (e.g., testing in May 1997 and 2002, but having moved from Vermont to Arizona in the interim); 2) the broader changes in weather due to taking the test in different seasonal conditions (e.g., testing in December 1997 and June 2002); and 3) the random weather perturbations that the jagged edges of the curves in figure 1 represent (e.g., engaging in activity and testing during a seasonably sunny few days in May 1997, and then again during a frost in May 2002). We also perform a robustness check whereby we restrict our sample to sunlight outliers in an attempt to capture the influence of more random as opposed to seasonally based weather, finding substantively similar resultswith the exception of gaming, which is no longer significantly predictive (see table S3 in the online appendix). Outdoor recreational activities are increasing worldwide and occur at high frequency especially close to cities. WebRecreation, passive means low intensity recreation activities which have limited noise and light impacts and are minimally disruptive to the natural environment. The PSID is a nationally representative, longitudinal study, with respondents surveyed annually from 1968 to 1997, and biennially thereafter up to the present. Other work in the realm of public health customarily considers time use as a predictor, focusing on the associations between specific behaviors and phenomena like obesity or attention deficit disorder (Falbe et al. Whether this is more purely physiological in origin or a reflection of the different psychological effects certain behaviors have on development is an open question, and fertile ground for future research. In this paper we use individual-level fixed effects coupled with a quasi-experimental research design, instrumenting active and sedentary behaviors with sunlight in trying to determine the cognitive effects of time use.
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